The Maya world

The Maya civilization occupied a vast territory spanning present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.

Its historical and cultural development took place both in the Highlands, with their volcanic soils, and in the Lowlands, which consisted of a central zone of humid tropical rainforest and a northern zone formed by a plain of low forests.

Many elements of Maya culture—such as temple structures, stepped pyramids, and the ballgame—appeared during the Middle Pre-Classic period under the influence of the Olmec culture from the Gulf of Mexico.

As early as 400 BCE, monumental architecture can be found in the Lowlands, such as at El Mirador, and in the Highlands at Kaminaljuyú, Izapa, and Takalik Abaj. In the latter area, the earliest traces of hieroglyphic writing and the most complex timekeeping system in Mesoamerica have been discovered.

Around 150 BCE, the Highlands began to lose their importance. In contrast, the power centers of central Petén and Yucatán laid the foundations for a cultural flourishing that began around 250 CE. Cities became far more sophisticated than in the previous period; they were equipped with temples, palaces, and causeways and housed a growing and socially stratified population led by a ruler, or ajaw, considered to be of divine essence.

The height of Maya civilization occurred during the Classic period. It was characterized by a high degree of artistic and architectural development, advanced water management, a highly developed writing system, and significant progress in mathematics and astronomy.

At this time, the Maya were divided into more than 60 distinct political entities, such as Tikal, Calakmul, Nakbé, Bonampak, Palenque, and Copán. These city-states were involved in a complex network of family ties, diplomatic contacts, and hierarchical relationships. Conflicts were frequent, such as those between Tikal and Calakmul, or between Bonampak and Piedras Negras against Yaxchilán. Occasionally, a city managed to extend its dominance for a time, as Tikal did, but none ever achieved total control over the region.

Around 800 CE, the first signs of decline appeared with an ecological crisis, overpopulation, cessation of trade, and collapse of the ruling dynasties of the central and southern Lowlands. This led Maya societies to migrate toward less densely populated areas.

This crisis did not affect the northern region, where control of important resources such as obsidian and gold, along with the presence of trade routes, allowed the city of Chichén Itzá to maintain its hegemony over the region for another century. During this period, the city maintained close relations with the Toltec civilization of the Basin of Mexico.

Following a revolt in 1221, Chichén Itzá lost its importance, once again giving way to a mosaic of city-states. From 1250 onward, in the Highlands—where Mexica cultural influence was present—independent states emerged. The Quiché, Cakchiquel, Tzutuhil, and Mam peoples, in conflict among themselves, later put up strong resistance against Spanish troops. The conquest of the Maya region required more than a century of warfare, ending with the capture of Tayasal in 1697.